Research Publications on Apraxia

One of ApraxiaResearch's ongoing goals is the dissemination of information on Apraxia and related disorders in children. We hope that these research publications, articles and study findings will help you in your quest.

Explore links to abstracts and some full texts of scientific articles on the relationship between fatty acids and apraxia, and related discussions.

Intestinal disaccharidase activity in patients with autism:
Effect of age, gender, and intestinal inflammation.
Kushak RI, Lauwers GY, Winter HS, Buie TM, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA.
Intestinal disaccharidase activities were measured in 199 individuals with autism to determine the frequency of enzyme deficiency. All patients had duodenal biopsies that were evaluated morphologically and assayed for lactase, sucrase, and maltase activity. Frequency of lactase deficiency was 58% in autistic children ≤ 5 years old and 65% in older patients. As would be expected, patients with autism at age 5 > years demonstrated significant decline in lactase activity (24%, p = .02) in comparison with ≤ 5 years old autistic patients. Boys ≤ 5 years old with autism had 1.7 fold lower lactase activity than girls with autism (p = .02). Only 6% of autistic patients had intestinal inflammation. Lactase deficiency not associated with intestinal inflammation or injury is common in autistic children and may contribute to abdominal discomfort, pain and observed aberrant behavior. Most autistic children with lactose intolerance are not identified by clinical history.

2008 Pediatric Academic Societies’ Annual Meeting
Morris CR, Geng L, Agin MC. Pediatric Academy Societies, 2008.
Program for the 2007 PAS Annual Meeting which included studies in Omega-3 and apraxia.

2007 PAS Annual Meeting Late-Breaker Abstract Presentations
Morris CR, Agin MC.  Pediatric Academy Societies, 2007. Late Breaker Abstract Presentation # 5570.8.
Abstracts of late-breaking scientific presentations including Claudia Morris and Marilyn Agin’s presentation, “Impact of Vitamin E and Omega 3 Supplementation in Children with Verbal Apraxia” on page 6.

The Oxford-Durham Study: A Randomized, Controlled Trial of Dietary Supplementation with Fatty Acids in Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder
Richardson AJ, Montgomery P. Pediatrics, 2005;115 (5):1360-1366.
“Fatty acid supplementation may offer a safe efficacious treatment option for educational and behavioral problems among children with DCD.”

The "late talker"—when silence isn’t golden
Agin MC, Nicholl MJ, Geng LF. The Late Talker. New York: St. Martin’s Press; 2004.
“A child who demonstrates communication delay as a toddler and during preschool is at greater risk of later language-based learning disabilities, including reading disabilities (dyslexia).”

Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in childhood developmental and psychiatric disorders
Richardson AJ. Lipids. 2004;39(12):1215-1222.
"Both omega-3 and omega-6 long-chain PUFA (LC-PUFA) are crucial to brain development and function, but omega-3 LC-PUFA in particular are often lacking in modern diets in developed countries. Increasing evidence, reviewed here, indicates that LC-PUFA deficiencies or imbalances are associated with childhood developmental and psychiatric disorders including ADHD, dyslexia, dyspraxia, and autistic spectrum disorders."

Fatty acids in dyslexia, dyspraxia and ADHD—Can nutrition help?
Richardson AJ, Puri BK. Prog Neuropsychopharm Biol Psychiatry, 2002; 26(2):233-239.
“[T]he latest research makes clear that it is EPA, not DHA, which is more effective in reducing
the problems with attention, perception and memory that are associated with ADHD, dyslexia and dyspraxia. This is probably because EPA plays a more important role in the minute-by-minute functioning of the brain, and also helps to make many other substances (such as prostaglandins) that are crucial for proper signalling between cells.”

Fatty acid metabolism in neurodevelopmental disorder: a new perspective on associations between attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, dyslexia, dyspraxia and the autistic spectrum
Richardson AJ, Ross MA. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids, 2000; 63: 1-9.
“There is increasing evidence that abnormalities of fatty acid and membrane phospholipid metabolism play a part in a wide range of neurodevelopmental and psychiatric disorders. This proposal is discussed here in relation to attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), dyslexia, developmental coordination disorder (dyspraxia) and the autistic spectrum. These are among the most common neurodevelopmental disorders of childhood, with significant implications for society as well as for those directly affected.”

Omega-3 Fatty Acids Supplementation in Children with Autism: A Double-blind Randomized, Placebo-controlled Pilot Study
Amminger GP, Berger GE, et al. Biol Psychiatry, 2007;61(4):551-553.
“The results of this study provide preliminary evidence that omega-3 fatty acids may be an effective treatment for children with autism.”

Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Supplementation for ADHD Symptoms: Response to Commentary.
Sinn N, Bryan J. J Dev Behav Pediatr, 2007; 28(2): 82-91.
Fatty acids may be an effective treatment for children with ADHD.

Oxidative Stress in Autism
Chauhan A, Chauhan V. Pathophysiology, 2006 Aug;13(3):171-81.
“[T]hese studies suggest increased oxidative stress in autism that may contribute to the development of this disease. A mechanism linking oxidative stress with membrane lipid abnormalities, inflammation, aberrant immune response, impaired energy metabolism and excitotoxicity, leading to clinical symptoms and pathogenesis of autism is proposed.

n-3 Fatty acids and mood: the devil is in the detail
Richardson AJ. Int Rev Psychiatry, 2006;18(2):155-172.
“Increasing evidence suggests that a low dietary intake of the n-3 long-chain PUFA EPA and DHA may contribute not only to the risks for various physical illnesses (particularly cardiovascular and immune system disorders), but also to many disorders of mental health and performance.”

Vitamins E and C are safe across a broad range of intakes
Hathcock JN, Azzi A, et al. Am J Clin Nutr, 2005 Apr;81(4):736-745.
“A robust database shows that dietary supplements of vitamins E and C are safe for the general population. Because these nutrients supply antioxidant and other functions for homeostasis and protection against free radical damage, supplementation has been intensively studied. Because of perceived benefits, many persons consume quantities of vitamins E and C well above the recommended dietary allowances.”

Vitamin E Regulation
Traber MG. Curr Opin Gastroenterol. 2005; 21: 223-227.
“Advances in our understanding of vitamin E nutrition suggest that vitamin E is a potent molecule that is closely regulated such that α-tocopherol is at the appropriate tissue concentrations necessary for some as yet to be described functions.”

Omega-3 Fatty Acids and Neuropsychiatric Disorders
Young G, Conquer J. Reprod Nutr Dev, 2005; 45: 1-28.
“Epidemiological evidence suggests that dietary consumption of the long chain omega-3 fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), commonly found in fish or fish oil, may modify the risk for certain neuropsychiatric disorders.”

Extrahepatic tissue concentrations of vitamin K are lower in rats fed a high vitamin E diet
Booth SL, Golly I, et al. Am J Clin Nutr, 2004;80(1):143-148.
“There appears to be a tissue-specific interaction between vitamins E and K when vitamin E is supplemented in rat diets.”

Role of polyunsaturated fatty acids in infant nutrition
Gil A, Ramirez M, Gil M. Eur J Clin Nutr, 2003;57 Suppl 1:S31-34.

Gluten sensitivity: a many headed hydra
Hadjivassiliou M, Grunewald RA, Davies-Jones GA. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2002; 72: 560-563.
“…focusing diagnostic criteria on the gut (as most physicians still do) has delayed the appreciation of the wider spectrum of gluten sensitivity.”

Evidence of poor vitamin status in coeliac patients on a gluten-free diet for 10 years.
Hallert C, Grant C, et al. Aliment Pharmacol Ther, 2002; 16:1333-1339.

Plasma fatty acid levels in autistic children
Vancassel S, Durand G, et al. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids, 2001;65(1):1-7.
Evidence from clinical and biochemical sources have indicated changes in the metabolism of fatty acids in several psychiatric disorders.

Tocopherol, the major form of vitamin E in the US diet, deserves more attention
Jiang Q, Christen S, et al. Am J Clin Nutr, 2001;74(6):714-722.
-Tocopherol is the major form of vitamin E in many plant seeds and in the US diet, but has drawn little attention compared with  -tocopherol, the predominant form of vitamin E in tissues and the primary form in supplements. However, recent studies indicate that  -tocopherol may be important to human health and that it possesses unique features that distinguish it from  -tocopherol.

Diagnosis, pathogenesis and treatment of inclusion body myositis
Nakamura MT, Cho HP, et al. Lipids, 2001 Sep;36(9):961-964.
“Recent findings indicate that both inflammatory reaction and abnormal protein accumulation are important for the pathogenesis in s-IBM.”

Could platelet activating factor play a role in developmental dyslexia?
Taylor KE, Higgins CJ, et al. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids, 2000;63:75-78.
“Post-mortem studies by Galaburda and colleagues on the brains of developmental dyslexics found characteristic neuronal abnormalities: ectopias, microgyria, and fewer large-soma cells in sensory thalamus. An association between dyslexia and immune dysfunction has also been proposed.”

Relationship between vitamin E requirement and polyunsaturated fatty acid intake in man: a review.
Valk EE, Hornstra G. Int J Vitam Nutr Res, 2000;70(2):31-42.
“Vitamin E is the general term for all tocopherols and tocotrienols, of which alpha-tocopherol is the natural and biologically most active form. Although gamma-tocopherol makes a significant contribution to the vitamin E CONTENT in foods, it is less effective in animal and human tissues, where alpha-tocopherol is the most effective chain-breaking lipid-soluble antioxidant. The antioxidant function of vitamin E is critical for the prevention of oxidation of tissue PUFA.”

Omega-3 fatty acids in boys with behavior, learning and health problems.
Stevens LJ, Zentall SS, et al. Physiol Behav, 1996; 59(4-5): 915-920.
“A greater number of behavior problems, assessed by the Conners’ Rating Scale, temper tantrums, and sleep problems were reported in subjects with lower total omega-3 fatty acid concentrations. Additionally, more learning and health problems were found in subjects with lower total omega-3 fatty acid concentrations.”

Vitamin E and neurologic function in man.
Sokol RJ. Free Radic Biol Med. 1989;6(2):189-207.
“[O]ver the past decade has vitamin E become recognized as essential for the maintenance of the structure and function of the human nervous system. This discovery of the neurologic role of vitamin E in man is due primarily to the identification of a degenerative neurologic syndrome in children and adults with chronic vitamin E deficiency caused by gastrointestinal diseases impairing fat and vitamin E absorption.”

Oral γ-Tocopherol Supplements Decrease Plasma α-Tocopherol Levels in Humans
Handelman GJ, Machlin LJ, et al.  J Nutrition, 1985; 115(6): 807-813.
“These results suggest that intestinal uptake and/or plasma transport make more efficient use of α-tocopherol than of γ- or ß-tocopherol.”

Human Biochemistry of the Isoprostane Pathway
Roberts LJ, 2nd, Oates JA, et al. Free Radic Biol Med, 2007;43(10):1388-1393.
“Basic research into the biochemistry and pharmacology of the IsoPs, coupled with clinical studies employing these molecules as biomarkers, should continue to provide important insights into the role of oxidant stress in human physiology and pathophysiology.”